<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD Journal Publishing with OASIS Tables v3.0 20080202//EN" "journalpub-oasis3.dtd">
<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:oasis="http://docs.oasis-open.org/ns/oasis-exchange/table" xml:lang="en" dtd-version="3.0" article-type="abstract"><?xmltex \bartext{safeND, 1a) Interim storage of radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel, BASE}?>
  <front>
    <journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">SaND</journal-id><journal-title-group>
    <journal-title>Safety of Nuclear Waste Disposal</journal-title>
    <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">SaND</abbrev-journal-title><abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">Saf. Nucl. Waste Disposal</abbrev-journal-title>
  </journal-title-group><issn pub-type="epub">2749-4802</issn><publisher>
    <publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
    <publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
  </publisher></journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/sand-1-15-2021</article-id><title-group><article-title>Distributed fiber optic radiation sensors</article-title><alt-title>Distributed fiber optic radiation sensors</alt-title>
      </title-group><?xmltex \runningtitle{Distributed fiber optic radiation sensors}?><?xmltex \runningauthor{A.~Wosniok and K.~Krebber}?>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
          <name><surname>Wosniok</surname><given-names>Aleksander</given-names></name>
          <email>aleksander.wosniok@bam.de</email>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="no">
          <name><surname>Krebber</surname><given-names>Katerina</given-names></name>
          
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1"><institution>Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM), Berlin, 12205, Germany</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes><corresp id="corr1">Aleksander Wosniok (aleksander.wosniok@bam.de)</corresp></author-notes><pub-date><day>10</day><month>November</month><year>2021</year></pub-date>
      
      <volume>1</volume>
      <fpage>15</fpage><lpage>16</lpage>
      
      <permissions>
        <copyright-statement>Copyright: © 2021 Aleksander Wosniok</copyright-statement>
        <copyright-year>2021</copyright-year>
      <license license-type="open-access"><license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://sand.copernicus.org/articles/1/15/2021/sand-1-15-2021.html">This article is available from https://sand.copernicus.org/articles/1/15/2021/sand-1-15-2021.html</self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="https://sand.copernicus.org/articles/1/15/2021/sand-1-15-2021.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://sand.copernicus.org/articles/1/15/2021/sand-1-15-2021.pdf</self-uri>
      <abstract><title>Abstract</title>

      <p id="d1e74">The international research efforts focused on the development of radiation
sensors based on optic fibers have their origins in the 1970s (Evans et al., 1978). Generally, the lightweight fiber optic sensors are immune to
electromagnetic field interference and high voltages making them deployable in harsh environments at hard to reach areas where conventional sensors usually will not work at all. A further advantage of such radiation sensors is the possibility of remote and real-time monitoring (Huston et al., 2001). In this work, we present our results achieved in several research activities for development of fiber optic dosimeters. The findings show that both the measurement of the radiation-induced attenuation (RIA) along the entire sensing fiber and the accompanying change in the refractive index of the fiber core can be used for distributed radiation monitoring in the kGy and MGy range, respectively. Depending on the fiber type and material the RIA shows varying response to dose rates, environmental temperatures and the wavelength of the laser source used. Thereby, an operation with visible laser light provides most favorable performance in terms of high radiation sensitivity. Operating at these wavelengths, RIA monitoring could yield high-sensitivity dose measurement with sub-gray resolution and accuracy (Stajanca and Krebber, 2017b); however, conventional optical time-domain reflectometry (OTDR) systems for RIA measurements operating in the visible range suffer from low-spatial resolution, long measurement times and poor signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio. The limitations of the OTDR performance can be overcome by the incoherent optical frequency domain reflectometry (I-OFDR) developed by the Federal Institute of Materials Research and Testing (BAM, Liehr et al., 2009) with potential for dynamic real-time measurement. Over the years, several highly radiation sensitive fibers, such as perfluorinated polymer optical fibers (PF-POF, Stajanca and Krebber, 2017a), phosphorous-doped silica optical fibers (SOF, Paul et al., 2009), aluminium-doped SOF (Faustov et al., 2013) and erbium-doped SOF (Wosniok et al., 2016) have been identified and are commercially available. As mentioned before, the radiation-induced RIA increase is associated with an increase in the refractive index leading also to material compaction in the fiber core. The latter two effects can be used for measuring radiation distribution based on Brillouin scattering in the range of high radiation doses of several MGy (Phéron et al., 2012; Wosniok et al., 2016). When using fiber optic sensors for radiation monitoring, the existing post-irradiation annealing behavior of the optical fiber sensors must also be considered.</p>
  </abstract>
      <trans-abstract><title>Kurzfassung</title>

      <p id="d1e79">Die internationalen Forschungsanstrengungen zur Entwicklung
von Strahlungssensoren auf Basis optischer Fasern haben ihren Ursprung in den
1970ern (Evans et al., 1978). Im Allgemeinen werden die leichten
faseroptischen Sensoren durch elektromagnetische Feldstörungen und hohe
Spannungen nicht beeinträchtigt, wodurch sie in rauen Umgebungen an schwer zugänglichen Stellen eingesetzt werden können, an denen
herkömmliche Sensoren in der Regel überhaupt nicht funktionieren. Ein
weiterer Vorteil solcher Strahlungssensoren ist die Möglichkeit der Fern-
und Echtzeitüberwachung (Huston et al., 2001). In dieser Arbeit stellen
wir unsere aus mehreren Forschungsarbeiten gewonnenen Ergebnisse zur
Entwicklung faseroptischer Dosimeter vor. Sie zeigen, dass sowohl die Messung
der strahlungsinduzierten Dämpfung (RIA: „radiation-induced
attenuation“) entlang der gesamten Messfaser als auch die damit
einhergehende Änderung des Brechungsindex des Faserkerns für die
Strahlungsüberwachung im kGy- bzw. MGy-Bereich genutzt werden
können. Abhängig von Fasertyp und Material reagiert die RIA
unterschiedlich auf Dosisleistungen, Umgebungstemperaturen und die
Wellenlänge der verwendeten Laserquelle. Dabei bietet ein Betrieb mit
sichtbarem Laserlicht die günstigste Leistung im Hinblick auf eine hohe
Strahlungsempfindlichkeit. Bei diesen Wellenlängen könnte die
RIA-Überwachung eine hochempfindliche Dosisbestimmung mit Auflösung
und Genauigkeit im Sub-Gy-Bereich<?pagebreak page16?> ergeben (Stajanca und Krebber,
2017b). Herkömmliche optische Zeitbereichsreflektometer (OTDR systems
[OTDR: „time-domain reflectometry“]) für RIA-Messungen, die im sichtbaren Bereich arbeiten, haben jedoch nur eine geringe räumliche
Auflösung, lange Messzeiten und ein schlechtes Signal-Rausch-Verhältnis (SNR: „signal-to-noise ratio“). Diese Einschränkungen der OTDR-Leistung können durch die von der BAM
(Bundes<?xmltex \hack{-\break}?>anstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung, Liehr et al., 2009) entwickelte inkohärente optische Frequenzbe<?xmltex \hack{-\break}?>reichsreflektometrie (I-OFDR:
„incoherent optical frequency domain reflectometry“) mit Potenzial für dynami<?xmltex \hack{-\break}?>sche Echtzeitmessungen überwunden werden. Im Laufe der Jahre wurden mehrere hochstrahlungsempfindliche Fasern, wie perfluorierte optische Polymerfasern (PF-POF; Stajanca und Krebber, 2017a), mit Phosphor versetzte optische Quarzglasfasern (SOF; Paul et al., 2009), mit Aluminium angereicherte SOF (Faustov et al., 2013) und SOF mit Erbiumzusatz (Wosniok et al., 2016), identifiziert und sind im Handel erhältlich. Wie be<?xmltex \hack{-\break}?>reits erwähnt, ist die strahlungsinduzierte RIA-Zunahme mit einer Erhöhung des Brechungsindex
assoziiert, was auch zu einer Materialverdichtung im Faserkern führt. Die
beiden letztgenannten Effekte können zur Messung der Strahlungsverteilung
auf Basis der Brillouin-Streuung im Bereich hoher Strahlendosen von mehreren
MGy genutzt werden (Phéron et al., 2012; Wosniok et al., 2016). Beim
Einsatz von faseroptischen Sensoren zur Strahlungsüberwachung muss auch
deren Nachglühverhalten nach Bestrahlung berücksichtigt werden.</p>
  </trans-abstract>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
<body>
      

      
      </body>
    <back><ref-list>
    <title>References</title>

      <ref id="bib1.bib1"><label>1</label><?label 1?><mixed-citation>Evans, B. D., Sigel, G. H., Langworthy, J. B., Faraday, B. J., and Chang, T. C.: The fiber optic dosimeter on the navigational technology satellite, IEEE T. Nucl. Sci., 25, 1619–1624,  <ext-link xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1109/TNS.1978.4329582" ext-link-type="DOI">10.1109/TNS.1978.4329582</ext-link>, 1978.</mixed-citation></ref>
      <ref id="bib1.bib2"><label>2</label><?label 2?><mixed-citation>Faustov, A. V., Gusarov,, A., Wuilpart, M., Fotiadi, A. A., Liokumovich, L. B., Zolotovskiy, I. O., Thomashuk, A. L., de Schoutheete, T., and Megret, P.: Comparison of gamma-radiation induced attenuation in Al-doped, P-doped and Ge-doped fibres for dosimetry, IEEE T. Nucl. Sci., 60, 2511–2517,  <ext-link xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1109/TNS.2013.2273273" ext-link-type="DOI">10.1109/TNS.2013.2273273</ext-link>, 2013.</mixed-citation></ref>
      <ref id="bib1.bib3"><label>3</label><?label 3?><mixed-citation>Huston A. L., Justus, B. L., Falkstein, P. L., Miller, R. W., Ning, H., and Altemus, R.: Remote optical fiber dosimetry, Nucl. Instrum. Meth. B, 184, 55–67, <ext-link xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-583X(01)00713-3" ext-link-type="DOI">10.1016/S0168-583X(01)00713-3</ext-link>, 2001.</mixed-citation></ref>
      <ref id="bib1.bib4"><label>4</label><?label CR4?><mixed-citation>Liehr, S., Nöther, N., and Krebber, K.: Incoherent optical frequency domain reflectometry and distributed strain detection in polymer optical fibers, Meas. Sci. Technol., 21, 017001,  <ext-link xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-0233/21/1/017001" ext-link-type="DOI">10.1088/0957-0233/21/1/017001</ext-link>, 2009.
</mixed-citation></ref><?xmltex \hack{\vfill\newpage}?>
      <ref id="bib1.bib5"><label>5</label><?label CR5?><mixed-citation>Paul, M. C., Bohra, D., Dhar, A., Sen, R., Bhatnagar, P. K., and Dasgupta, K.: Radiation response behavior of high phosphorous doped step-index multimode optical fibers under low dose gamma irradiation, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 355, 1496–1507,  <ext-link xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2009.05.017" ext-link-type="DOI">10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2009.05.017</ext-link>, 2009.</mixed-citation></ref>
      <ref id="bib1.bib6"><label>6</label><?label CR6?><mixed-citation>Phéron, X., Girard, S., Boukenter, A., Brichard, B., Delepine-Lesoille, S., Bertrand, J., and Ouerdane, Y.: High <inline-formula><mml:math id="M1" display="inline"><mml:mi mathvariant="italic">γ</mml:mi></mml:math></inline-formula>-ray dose radiation effects on the performances of Brillouin scattering based optical fiber sensors, Opt. Express, 20, 26978–26985,  <ext-link xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.20.026978" ext-link-type="DOI">10.1364/OE.20.026978</ext-link>, 2012.</mixed-citation></ref>
      <ref id="bib1.bib7"><label>7</label><?label CR7?><mixed-citation>Stajanca, P. and Krebber, K.: Radiation-induced attenuation of perfluorinated polymer optical fibers for radiation monitoring, Sensors, 17, 1959,  <ext-link xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.3390/s17091959" ext-link-type="DOI">10.3390/s17091959</ext-link>, 2017a.</mixed-citation></ref>
      <ref id="bib1.bib8"><label>8</label><?label CR8?><mixed-citation>
Stajanca, P. and Krebber, K.: Polymer optical fibers as radiation sensors?,
in: Proc. of POF2017, 13–15 September 2017, Aveiro, Portugal, 2017b.</mixed-citation></ref>
      <ref id="bib1.bib9"><label>9</label><?label CR9?><mixed-citation>Wosniok, A., Sporea, D., Neguţ, D., and Krebber, K.: Gamma radiation
influence on silica optical fibers measured by optical backscatter
reflectometry and Brillouin sensing technique, Proc. SPIE, 9916, 99162J, <ext-link xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2236678" ext-link-type="DOI">10.1117/12.2236678</ext-link>, 2016.</mixed-citation></ref>

  </ref-list></back>
    <!--<article-title-html>Distributed fiber optic radiation sensors</article-title-html>
<abstract-html/>
<ref-html id="bib1.bib1"><label>1</label><mixed-citation>
Evans, B. D., Sigel, G. H., Langworthy, J. B., Faraday, B. J., and Chang, T. C.: The fiber optic dosimeter on the navigational technology satellite, IEEE T. Nucl. Sci., 25, 1619–1624,  <a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/TNS.1978.4329582" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1109/TNS.1978.4329582</a>, 1978.
</mixed-citation></ref-html>
<ref-html id="bib1.bib2"><label>2</label><mixed-citation>
Faustov, A. V., Gusarov,, A., Wuilpart, M., Fotiadi, A. A., Liokumovich, L. B., Zolotovskiy, I. O., Thomashuk, A. L., de Schoutheete, T., and Megret, P.: Comparison of gamma-radiation induced attenuation in Al-doped, P-doped and Ge-doped fibres for dosimetry, IEEE T. Nucl. Sci., 60, 2511–2517,  <a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/TNS.2013.2273273" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1109/TNS.2013.2273273</a>, 2013.
</mixed-citation></ref-html>
<ref-html id="bib1.bib3"><label>3</label><mixed-citation>
Huston A. L., Justus, B. L., Falkstein, P. L., Miller, R. W., Ning, H., and Altemus, R.: Remote optical fiber dosimetry, Nucl. Instrum. Meth. B, 184, 55–67, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-583X(01)00713-3" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-583X(01)00713-3</a>, 2001.
</mixed-citation></ref-html>
<ref-html id="bib1.bib4"><label>4</label><mixed-citation>
Liehr, S., Nöther, N., and Krebber, K.: Incoherent optical frequency domain reflectometry and distributed strain detection in polymer optical fibers, Meas. Sci. Technol., 21, 017001,  <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-0233/21/1/017001" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-0233/21/1/017001</a>, 2009.

</mixed-citation></ref-html>
<ref-html id="bib1.bib5"><label>5</label><mixed-citation>
Paul, M. C., Bohra, D., Dhar, A., Sen, R., Bhatnagar, P. K., and Dasgupta, K.: Radiation response behavior of high phosphorous doped step-index multimode optical fibers under low dose gamma irradiation, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 355, 1496–1507,  <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2009.05.017" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2009.05.017</a>, 2009.
</mixed-citation></ref-html>
<ref-html id="bib1.bib6"><label>6</label><mixed-citation>
Phéron, X., Girard, S., Boukenter, A., Brichard, B., Delepine-Lesoille, S., Bertrand, J., and Ouerdane, Y.: High <i>γ</i>-ray dose radiation effects on the performances of Brillouin scattering based optical fiber sensors, Opt. Express, 20, 26978–26985,  <a href="https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.20.026978" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.20.026978</a>, 2012.
</mixed-citation></ref-html>
<ref-html id="bib1.bib7"><label>7</label><mixed-citation>
Stajanca, P. and Krebber, K.: Radiation-induced attenuation of perfluorinated polymer optical fibers for radiation monitoring, Sensors, 17, 1959,  <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/s17091959" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3390/s17091959</a>, 2017a.
</mixed-citation></ref-html>
<ref-html id="bib1.bib8"><label>8</label><mixed-citation>
Stajanca, P. and Krebber, K.: Polymer optical fibers as radiation sensors?,
in: Proc. of POF2017, 13–15 September 2017, Aveiro, Portugal, 2017b.
</mixed-citation></ref-html>
<ref-html id="bib1.bib9"><label>9</label><mixed-citation>
Wosniok, A., Sporea, D., Neguţ, D., and Krebber, K.: Gamma radiation
influence on silica optical fibers measured by optical backscatter
reflectometry and Brillouin sensing technique, Proc. SPIE, 9916, 99162J, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2236678" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2236678</a>, 2016.
</mixed-citation></ref-html>--></article>
